人工智能史：剑桥科学史系的暑期学校（3月16日截止）及主题相关书目
最近听说不少老师的直播课要开始了，祝大家新学期愉快。我们系这个学期正在搞一系列和AI有关的事情。下面这个研讨班系列叫Histories of AI: A Genealogy of Power，是HPS和英语系合办的，意图在一个历史的、跨学科的、去殖民化的语境里讨论AI。这个项目包括一系列读书会、暑期学校，以及可以在线参加的讨论班，希望跟进的话可以在这里subscribe他们的mailing list：https://lists.cam.ac.uk/mailman/listinfo/hps-hoai
在项目网页上https://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/about/research-projects/histories-of-ai 还有很多背景介绍。这个研讨班主要关注AI的四个问题：AI技术的实现背后隐藏的人类劳动（Hidden Labour），AI的广泛应用对人类行为的塑造（Encoded Behavior），围绕AI的修辞（Disingenuous Rhetoric）以及AI带来的认知上的压抑、窄化与不平等（Cognitive Injustice）。
里面提到的书目我搬运整理了一下，范围很广，包括了AI、大数据、性别、政治领域的不少研究，关键很多都是17-19年新出甚至尚未出版的东西。完整书单见推送结尾。
Hidden Labour
劳动问题中的很大一部分涉及到计算，特别是早期计算机和编程发展史上的女性，是现在科技史的重点话题。在当下，人工数据录入这样的劳动不仅没有减少，反而更多了，劳动的主体往往是人力成本较低的发展中国家。996也是这个语境下的问题之一：在许多大中小城市中，我们引以为豪的“智能”便捷生活其实是依赖大量的过度劳动运转的。为了开发出方便点外卖的软件，有很多人忙到完全没时间和家人一起吃饭，这样一种智能技术下的劳动和生活状态几乎成了一种惯性。如何去反思和改善这种处境？
Encoded Behaviour
这个主题下很多文献谈到了监视的问题。事实上，除了我们所熟知的显性的监视外，隐性的监视同样值得我们关注：当整个社会都假定你的行为是可理解的、可定义的、可程式化的，你如何保持自己作为个体的独特性？一旦你的行为被假定为可理解、可定义，这个系统就会使用这种理解来塑造你，在这个原理上，大数据对人的塑造和人对人的塑造异曲同工——最近刚读了Ian Hacking的The Looping Effects of Human Kinds，初步感觉可以连起来思考。在具体的语境中，例如工作岗位、学校等等，监视也有很多种可讨论的形式。
Disingenuous Rhetoric
人类对人工智能的想象和修辞在历史上一直是一个重要话题。最近重读Frankenstein时看到一篇文章用anxiety of creation这个词来分析这本书，即人类对创造一个和自己一样的智能生命的焦虑。现在很常见的情况是，对人工智能的想象经常让我们人格化甚至妖魔化这项技术，进入一种模式化的想象中，而忽视了真正的技术现实。我们关于人工智能的修辞的背后是很多政治和经济因素，下面导论里提到的Sophia就是一个很好的例子。在这个问题下，我想我们思考现有修辞的同时，还可以思考如何在艺术、文学和实践中创造新的修辞。
下面还放了一个Leverhulme的讲座，从17世纪至今的知识史视角讲AI，同样也涉及到修辞的问题。
Cognitive Injustice
认知问题与其说是AI的应用带来的，不如说它根植于整个数码时代的认知方式。认知工具例如搜索引擎、图像识别等等技术的发展，让我们把越来越多的认知官能让渡给了技术。其结果是人类自己反而成了被剥夺知识和判断的一方，知识不再被人类拥有，而是被特定的媒介和算法拥有，被掌握技术的群体使用，这加剧了认知的不对称性。AI是这种情形的集中表现：当你将知识和判断都完全让渡给智能，你就会发现你也让渡了一部分价值。例如导论里提到的案例：谁判断你的性别？少数群体往往最先承担这种认知让渡带来的价值问题。
现在暑期学校已经开放报名了，日期是7月12-18日，有差旅补助可以申请。各个领域的研究者，包括艺术家、媒介学者、社会学者等等都是欢迎的，我估计社会运动家更受欢迎，哈哈。主题并不会限于上面的四个问题。报名地址https://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/about/research-projects/histories-of-ai/activities/summer-school
再提一下Leverhulme Centre for the Future of Intelligence (CFI) ，是base在剑桥的人工智能研究中心，由Leverhulme Trust资助，和我们系的合作很多。http://lcfi.ac.uk/ 他们三月份还有一个AI in the History of Knowledge的讲座，这里贴一下摘要。
完整参考文献列表
Adam, Alison (1998). Artificial Knowing: Gender and the Thinking Machine. London/New York: Routledge.
Adam, Alison (1995) Embodying Knowledge: A Feminist Critique of Artificial Intelligence. The European Journal of Women's Studies 2: 355–377.
Agar, Jon (2003). The Government Machine: A Revolutionary History of the Computer. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Ates, A. (2012) "The 'other' in the machine: oriental automata and the mechanization of the mind." Unpublished PhD thesis. University of California.
Ching-Hua Chuan, Wan-Hsiu Tsai and Su Yeon Cho (2019). "Framing Artificial Intelligence in American Newspapers." AIES 2019.
Cohen-Cole, Jamie (2008). "Margaret A. Boden. Mind as Machine: A History of Cognitive Science. 2 Volumes. xlviii + 1,631 pp., Figs., Tables, Apps., Bibl., Indexes. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. £125 (Cloth)." Isis 99, no. 4: 811–12.
Couldry, Nick, and Ulises A. Mejias (2018). "Data Colonialism: Rethinking Big Data's Relation to the Contemporary Subject." Television & New Media.
Cowan, Ruth Schwartz (2011). More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave. New York: Basic Books.
Daston, Lorraine (1994). "Enlightenment Calculations." Critical Inquiry 21, no. 1: 182–202.
Dick, Stephanie (forthcoming). Making Up Minds: Computing and Proof in the Postwar United States.
Dillon, Sarah (under peer review). "The ELIZA Complex: Weizenbaum, Pygmalion and the Effects of Gendering AI."
Dillon, Sarah (under peer review), "What AI Researchers Read: The Role of Literature in Artificial Intelligence Research." with Jennifer Schaffer-Goddard, Social Studies of Science.
Dinnen, Zara (2017). The Digital Banal: New Media and American Literature and Culture. New York: Columbia University Press.
Dreyfus, Hubert L. (2008). "Why Heideggerian AI Failed and How Fixing It Would Require Making It More Heideggerian." In The Mechanical Mind in History, edited by Phil Husbands, Owen Holland, and Michael Wheeler. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Broussard, Meredith (2018). Artificial Unintelligence: How Computers Misunderstand the World. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Buolamwini, Joy and Timnit Gebru (2018). "Gender Shades: Intersectional Accuracy Disparities in Commercial Gender Classification." Proceedings of Machine Learning Research 81, no. 1: 1–15.
Edwards, Paul N. (1997). The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America. First MIT Pr. Paperb. ed. Inside Technology. Cambridge, Mass. London: MIT.
Ensmenger, Nathan (2004). "Power to the People: Toward a Social History of Computing." IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 26, no. 1: 94–96.
Ensmenger, Nathan (2010). The Computer Boys Take Over: Computers, Programmers, and the Politics of Technical Expertise. History of Computing. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Eubanks, Virginia (2017). Automating Inequality: How High-Tech Tools Profile, Police, and Punish the Poor. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Fast, E. and Horvitz, E. (2017). "Long-Term Trends in the Public Perception of Artificial Intelligence." AAAI (February): 963–969.
Giridharadas, Anand (2018). Winners Take All: The Elite Charade of Changing the World. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Greene, Daniel, Anna Lauren Hoffmann, and Luke Stark (2019). "Better, Nicer, Clearer, Fairer: A Critical Assessment of the Movement for Ethical Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning." In Proceedings of the 52nd Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 2122–31. Hawaii.
Gray, Mary L., and Siddharth Suri (2019). Ghost Work: How to Stop Silicon Valley from Building a New Global Underclass. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Hagendorff, Thilo (2019). The Ethics of AI Ethics – An Evaluation of Guidelines.
Hicks, Marie (2017). Programmed Inequality: How Britain Discarded Women Technologists and Lost Its Edge in Computing. History of Computing. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Horan, Caley Dawn (2011). "Actuarial Age: Insurance and the Emergence of Neoliberalism in the Postwar United States." Dissertation, University of Minnesota.
Igo, Sarah E. (2018). "Josh Lauer. Creditworthy: A History of Consumer Surveillance and Financial Identity in America." The American Historical Review 123, no. 2: 605–7.
Irani, Lilly (2016). "The Hidden Faces of Automation." XRDS: Crossroads, The ACM Magazine for Students 23, no. 2: 34–37.
Jones, Matthew L. (2016). Reckoning with Matter: Calculating Machines, Innovation, and Thinking about Thinking from Pascal to Babbage. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Katz, Yarden (2017). "Manufacturing an Artificial Intelligence Revolution." SSRN Electronic Journal.
Keyes, Os (2018). "The Misgendering Machines: Trans/HCI Implications of Automatic Gender Recognition." Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction 2, no. CSCW (November): 1–22.
Kozul-Wright, Richard (2016). "Policy Brief: Robots and Industrialization in Developing Countries." No. 50. United Nations, October.
Lauer, Josh (2017). Creditworthy: A History of Consumer Surveillance and Financial Identity in America. Columbia Studies in the History of U.S. Capitalism. New York: Columbia University Press.
Levy, Karen Elinor Conway (2014). "The Automation of Compliance: Techno-Legal Regulation in the United States Trucking Industry." Princeton University.
McCarthy, John. "John McCarthy's Home Page." Personal blog. Accessed November 22, 2016.
Mahendran, D.D. (2011) "Race and computation: an existential phenomenological inquiry concerning man, mind, and the body." Unpublished PhD thesis. University of California.
McCorduck, Pamela (1979). Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
Miltner, Kate M (2018). "Girls Who Coded: Gender in Twentieth Century U.K. and U.S. Computing." Science, Technology, & Human Values, May 7.
Minsky, Marvin, John McCarthy, Claude E. Shannon, and Nathaniel Rochester (1955). "A Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence, Sent to the Rockefeller Foundation." August 31, 1955. Dart564props. Online Papers of Ray Solomonoff.
Mirowski, Philip (2003). "Book Review: McCorduck's Machines Who Think after Twenty-Five Years – Revisiting the Origins of AI." AI Magazine.
Newell, Allen (2000). "Intellectual Issues in the History of Artificial Intelligence." In Artificial Intelligence: Critical Concepts, edited by Ronald Chrisley and Sander Begeer. London; New York: Routledge.
Nilsson, Nils J. (2010) The Quest for Artificial Intelligence: A History of Ideas and Achievements. Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press.
Noble, Safiya Umoja (2018). Algorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism. New York: New York University Press.
O'Neil, Cathy (2016). Weapons of Math Destruction: How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens Democracy. New York: Crown.
Osborne, Michael A., and Carl Benedikt Frey (2013). "The Future of Employment: How Susceptible Are Jobs to Computerisation?" Oxford Martin School: University of Oxford, September 17.
Penn, Jonnie. "Inventing Intelligence: Varieties of Intelligence in Mid-Twentieth Century AI Research." University of Cambridge, PhD dissertation in progress.
Penn, Jonnie (2019). Review of Programmed Inequality: How Britain Discarded Women Technologists and Lost Its Edge in Computing, by Marie Hicks. H-Sci-Med-Tech, no. H-Net Reviews (February).
Price Waterhouse Coopers (2017). "Sizing the Prize: What's the Real Value of AI for Your Business and How Can You Capitalise?"
Reccia, Gabriel (2020). "The Governance of AI," in AI Narratives: A History of Imaginative Thinking about Intelligent Machines, ed with Stephen Cave and Kanta Dihal (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
Ricaurte, Paola (2019). "Data Epistemologies, The Coloniality of Power, and Resistance." Television & New Media, March 7.
Rosenthal, Caitlin (2018). Accounting for Slavery: Masters and Management. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Schaffer, Simon (1994). From Physics to Anthropology and Back Again. Cambridge: Prickly Pear Press, 1994.
Schaffer, Simon (1996). Babbage's Calculating Engines and the Factory System. Réseaux. The French journal of communication, volume 4, n°2, 1996. pp. 271-298.
Staley, Richard (2017). "Understanding Climate Change Historically", in Alexander Elliott, James Cullis and Vinita Damodaran, eds. Climate Change and the Humanities: Historical, Philosophical and Interdisciplinary Approaches to the Contemporary Environmental Crisis (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2017), pp. 43–68.
Staley, Richard (2018). "The Interwar Period as a Machine Age: Mechanics, The Machine, Mechanisms and The Market in Discourse", Science in Context 31:3 (2018), 263–292.
Taylor, Astra (2018). "The Automation Charade." Logic Magazine, August.
Thatcher, Jim, David O'Sullivan, and Dillon Mahmoudi (2016). "Data Colonialism through Accumulation by Dispossession: New Metaphors for Daily Data." Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 34, no. 6 (December): 990–1006.
Weizenbaum, Joseph (1966). "ELIZA – A computer program for the study of natural language communication between man and machine." Computational Linguistics 9(1): 36-45.
Wisskirchen, Gerlind, Blandine Thibault Biacabe, Ulrich Bormann, Annemarie Muntz, Gunda Niehaus, Guillermo Jiménez Soler, and Beatrice von Brauchitsch (2017). "Artificial Intelligence and Robotics and Their Impact on the Workplace." IBA Global Employment Institute, April.
Yale, Elizabeth (2015). "The History of Archives: The State of the Discipline." Book History 18, no. 1: 332–59.